The Potential Effect of Propolis on Norovirus Viral Load: An Experimental Research using Balb/c Mice
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Norovirus infection is a significant public health concern, particularly among children, due to its association with diarrhea. The current management strategies for Norovirus primarily focus on rehydration and symptomatic relief. This research was performed to examine the effects of propolis on the viral load and the severity of diarrhea caused by Human Norovirus (HuNoV) infection. In this experimental research, a total of 21 BALB/c mice were randomly assigned to three groups: Group K(-) (control group), Group K(+) (exposed solely to HuNoV), and Group P (exposed to HuNoV with propolis intervention). A 1 ml suspension of HuNoV was administered to the mice via the intraperitoneal route. Rapid Diagnostic Tests (RDT) Norovirus Kit and Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) were performed 48 hours post-infection to confirm successful viral infection. The severity of diarrhea was assessed using the paper towel method. Propolis was administered as a suspension at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg body weight for five days. On day eight, the mice were euthanized, and fecal samples were collected from the colon for further analysis. RT-PCR was conducted again to quantify the viral load. The results on day eight indicated a significant reduction in viral load in Group P, whereas Group K(-) showed no such reduction. Furthermore, the severity of diarrhea in the mice treated with propolis was found lower. These findings suggest that propolis contributes to the reduction of viral load and the diarrhea severity in mice infected with Norovirus.
Downloads
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
References
1. Shah MP, Hall AJ. Norovirus Illnesses in Children and Adolescents. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2018;32(1):103.
2. Zhang P, Hao C, Di X, Chuizhao X, Jinsong L, Guisen Z, Hui L, Zhaojun D. Global prevalence of norovirus gastroenteritis after emergence of the GII.4 Sydney 2012 variant: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Public Health. 2024;12:1373322.
3. Lian Y, Wu S, Luo L, Lv B, Liao Q, Li Z, Rainey J, Hall A, Ran L. Epidemiology of Norovirus Outbreaks Reported to the Public Health Emergency Event Surveillance System, China, 2014–2017. Viruses. 2019;11(4):2014–2017.
4. Carlson KB, Dilley A, O’Grady T, Johnson JA, Lopman B, Viscidi E. A narrative review of norovirus epidemiology, biology, and challenges to vaccine development. Vaccines (Basel). 2024 ;9(1):1–9.
5. Chen Y, Hall AJ, Kirk MD. Norovirus Disease in Older Adults Living in Long-Term Care Facilities: Strategies for Management. Curr Geriatr Rep. 2017;6(1):26–33.
6. Tsai H, Yune P, Rao M. Norovirus disease among older adults. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2022;9:1–13.
7. Qi R, Huang Y ting, Liu J wei, Sun Y, Sun X feng, Han HJ, Qin XR, Zhao M, Wang LJ, Wenqian L, Li JH, Chen C, Yu XJ. Global Prevalence of Asymptomatic Norovirus Infection: A Meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine. 2018;2–3:50–58.
8. Thébault A, David J, Kooh P, Cadavez V, Gonzales-Barron U, Pavio N. Risk factors for sporadic norovirus infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Microb Risk Anal. 2021;17(100135):1–10.
9. Touzani S, Embaslat W, Imtara H, Kmail A, Kadan S, Zaid H, Elarabi I, Badiaa L, Saad B, Kabir Y. In Vitro Evaluation of the Potential Use of Propolis as a Multitarget Therapeutic Product: Physicochemical Properties, Chemical Composition, and Immunomodulatory, Antibacterial, and Anticancer Properties. Biomed Res Int. 2019;2019(4836378):1–11.
10. Rufatto LC, dos Santos DA, Marinho F, Henriques JAP, Roesch Ely M, Moura S. Red propolis: Chemical composition and pharmacological activity. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2017;7(7):591–598.
11. Fiorini AC, Scorza CA, de Almeida ACG, Fonseca MCM, Finsterer J, Fonseca FLA, Scorza F. Antiviral activity of Brazilian Green Propolis extract against SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome - Coronavirus 2) infection: case report and review. Clinics. 2021;76(e2357):1–4.
12. Ożarowski M, Karpiński TM. The Effects of Propolis on Viral Respiratory Diseases. Molecules. 2023;28(359):1–14.
13. Magnavacca A, Sangiovanni E, Racagni G, Dell’Agli M. The antiviral and immunomodulatory activities of propolis: An update and future perspectives for respiratory diseases. Med Res Rev. 2022;42(2):897–945.
14. Ghosh S, Al-Sharify ZT, Maleka MF, Onyeaka H, Maleke M, Maolloum A, Godoy L, Meskini M, Rami M, Ahmadi S, Al-Najjar S, Al-Sharify N, Ahmed S, Dehghani M. Propolis efficacy on SARS-COV viruses: a review on antimicrobial activities and molecular simulations. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2022;29(39):58628–58647.
15. Megantara I, Murad C, Pahlevi F, Sylviana N, Goenawan H, Lesmana R. The Effect of Propolis Extract from Sumatra, Indonesia on Escherichia coli and IL-6 Gene Expression in Male Wistar Rats Fed with a High-Fat Diet. Trop J Nat Prod Res. 2024;8(6):7350–7354.
16. Ullah A, Munir S, Badshah SL, Khan N, Ghani L, Poulson BG, Emwas A, Jaremko M. Important Flavonoids and Their Role as a Therapeutic Agent. Molecules. 2020;25(22):5243.
17. Roy A, Khan A, Ahmad I, Alghamdi S, Rajab BS, Babalghith AO, Alshahrani M, Islam S, Islam M. Flavonoids a Bioactive Compound from
Medicinal Plants and Its Therapeutic Applications. Biomed Res Int. 2022;2022:1–19.
18. Hassan STS, Šudomová M, Mazurakova A, Kubatka P. Insights into Antiviral Properties and Molecular Mechanisms of Non-Flavonoid Polyphenols against Human Herpesviruses. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(22):1–21.
19. Kiokias S, Oreopoulou V. A Review of the Health Protective Effects of Phenolic Acids against a Range of Severe Pathologic Conditions
(Including Coronavirus-Based Infections). Molecules. 2021;26(17):1–18.
20. Kurek-Górecka A, Kłósek M, Pietsz G, Czuba ZP, Kolayli S, Can Z, Balwierz R, Olczyk P. The Phenolic Profile and Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Ethanolic Extract of Polish Propolis on Activated Human Gingival Fibroblasts-1 Cell Line. Molecules. 2023;28(22):1–23.
21. Rusdi WE, Soetjipto, Lusida MI, Dinana Z, Maharani AT, Farindra I, Huda N, Maharani R, Hamida A. Mice as Small Animal Model for Human Norovirus Infection. Trop J Nat Prod Res. 2024;8(5):7089–7092.
22. Nair A, Jacob S. A simple practice guide for dose conversion between animals and human. J Basic Clin Pharm. 2016;7(2):27–31.
23. Yim SK, Kim SW, Lee ST. Efficient Stool Collection Methods for Evaluating the Diarrhea Score in Mouse Diarrhea Models. In Vivo (Brooklyn). 2021;35(4):2115–2125.
24. Yosri N, El-Wahed AAA, Ghonaim R, Khattab OM, Sabry A, Ibrahim MAA, Moustafa M, Gou Z, Zou X, Algethami A, Masry S, Alajmi M, Afifi H, Khalifa S, El-Seedi H. Anti-Viral and Immunomodulatory Properties of Propolis: Chemical Diversity, Pharmacological Properties, Preclinical and Clinical Applications, and In Silico Potential against SARS-CoV-2. Foods. 2021;10(8):1–47.
25. Sberna G, Biagi M, Marafini G, Nardacci R, Biava M, Colavita F, Piselli P, Miraldi E, D’Offizi G, Capobianchi M, Amendola A. In vitro Evaluation of Antiviral Efficacy of a Standardized Hydroalcoholic Extract of Poplar Type Propolis Against SARS-CoV-2. Front Microbiol. 2022;13(799546):1–15.
26. Mazia RS, De Araújo Pereira RR, De Francisco LMB, Natali MRM, Dias Filho BP, Nakamura C, Bruschi M, Ueda-Nakamura T. Formulation and Evaluation of a Mucoadhesive Thermoresponsive System Containing Brazilian Green Propolis for the Treatment of Lesions Caused by Herpes Simplex Type I. J Pharm Sci. 2016;105(1):113–121.
27. Peixoto M, Freitas AS, Cunha A, Oliveira R, Almeida-Aguiar C. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of blends of propolis samples collected in different years. LWT. 2021;145:111311.
28. Zulhendri F, Lesmana R, Tandean S, Christoper A, Chandrasekaran K, Irsyam I, Suwantika A, Abdulah R, Wathoni N. Recent Update on the Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Propolis. Molecules. 2022;27(8473):1–61.
29. Chuttong B, Lim K, Praphawilai P, Danmek K, Maitip J, Vit P, Wu M, Ghosh S, Jung C, Burgett M, Hongsibsong S. Exploring the Functional Properties of Propolis, Geopropolis, and Cerumen, with a Special Emphasis on Their Antimicrobial Effects. Foods. 2023;12(21):3909.